Introduction
Lucknow, the capital of the state of Uttar Pradesh, is often called as the Constantinople of the East, due to its culture, food and arts. Situated on the banks of the river Gomti, the city has been transformed from a medieval town to a modern city. The city was the capital of the Nawabs of Awadh from 1775, when Nawab Asaf ud Daula shifted his court from Faizabad and remained the capital of the Nawabs till 1856, when the administration was taken over the East India Company.
The city is globally renowned for its Kebabs, a delicate dish that has its origin from Persia to the Mughals. The kebabs are not just a cuisine for the people but a culinary craftsmanship and cultural icon of Awadh. From galouti kebabs to the modern seekh kebabs, the cuisine has transformed itself numerous times.
Kebabs have seen the historical transformation of the city, from serving in the Nawab’s royal courts to the street vendors. The kebabs are the creation of the royal chefs of the Nawabs, known as Rakabdars, who were in this profession for generations and passed their secret recipes to their respective families.
In contemporary times, the kebabs embody the essence of the city, which is encapsulated in the city’s motto: “Muskuraiye aap Lucknow me hai”.
History of Kebabs: From Persia to Lucknow
The actual history of kebabs is difficult to trace as no primary sources confirm its origins, often due to the inability to keep gastronomy records in the medieval era. However, the cuisine was popularized by the Turks, who refer to it as grilled or boiled meat, which was cooked on skewers and can be eaten as stew and meatballs according to one’s preference.
The introduction of kebabs in India is attributed to the journey of Mughal emperor Humayun, who went to Persia after his narrow defeat by Sher Shah Suri. Humayun stayed in the courts of Sultan Shah Tahmasp I for fifteen years and took a liking to this new recipe. When he returned to Delhi in 1556, many Persian chefs accompanied him, and the recipe was delivered to Indian chefs and from there, the dish was added to the royal menu for the royal family, nobles and Amirs.
The significant development took place in the reign of Akbar, Humayun’s successor. When the dish was Indianized, by the fusion of Persian flavours and Indian spices, herbs and masala. The dish was now turned towards goat meat, as it was more prevalent in India.
By the 18th century, the Mughal empire was declining due to political and economic reasons and the vassals of the empire were now liberating themselves as new independent regional powers. Among these were the states of Awadh, Hyderabad, Marathas, Jats and Sikhs. The Nawabs of Awadh traced their lineage from the Nishapur dynasty of Persia and introduced many Persian arts and cuisine to their courts. Among them were the kebabs, which were different from the Mughal kebabs due to their size, texture and recipe.
In the reign of Wajid Ali Shah, who was renowned for his passion in the arts, was a delicate lover of kebabs, and it is a folk tale that due to his inability to chew solid foods, the Rakabdars introduced the Galouti Kebabs, which were soft as silk in their appearance and taste.
Another famous tale is the origin of the Kakori Kebabs, which were created to impress the British resident when he made a joke regarding the quality of Awadh kebabs as menial in comparison to other cuisines.
The Art of Making Kebabs
The ingredients of original kebabs are kept and preserved in secret by the families of Rakabdars, but the recipe is quite widely known by the chefs of modern times. The meat is first finely minced and mixed with spices and fragments such as cloves, cardamom, cinnamon and finally saffron. The mix of spices adds a rich flavour that is both bold and perfectly balanced. Then for its tenderness, raw papaya is used as a natural tenderizer and the enzymes in papaya gently break down the protein in the meat, resulting in a texture as soft as it nearly melts in the mouth.
Then the kebabs are shallow fried on a grill, and this method depends on chef to chef as it provides a delicate crispness on the outside texture, and inside, it maintains the juicy softness, which tantalizes the taste buds with every bite.
Types of Lucknow Kebabs
The kebabs of Lucknow are characterized into diverse dishes based upon their texture, taste and flavours, and some of the renowned dishes have been mentioned below-
The Galouti Kebabs are often called ‘Tunday ke Kebabs’, because they were created by chef Haji Murad Ali, who was called as Tunday, meaning one-armed, as he had lost his arm when he was flying a kite in his childhood. These kebabs were created for the Nawab Wajid Ali, who experienced difficulty in chewing as he had lost his teeth due to old age. These kebabs comprise nicely minced mutton combined with raw spices and papaya as a tenderizer and are grilled on a tawa (a round cooking pan).
Another dish is the infamous Kakori Kebabs, which derived its name from the city of Kakori, 22 km from Lucknow. The kebabs have a velvety texture that is made up of grinding meat into a fine paste and then combining it with a blend of local spices. These kebabs are presented as patties and often served wrapped in romali roti (a flatbread type of chapati) with mint chutney and sliced onions.
The next delicate dish is the Shami Kebab, which is believed to have originated in Syria, as the city was known as Bilal-al-Sham in the Middle Ages. They are also prepared using minced meat, chana dal (yellow gram) and a mixture of lentils and local spices. The special feature of these kebabs is that their meat is pounded by hand and then mixed with other ingredients by hand only, then shaped into patties before being fried and grilled.
Lastly, the infamous Boti Kebabs, which derived its name due to its texture of small chunks of meat which are marinated in a rich mixture of dahi (curd), ginger garlic paste, papaya paste and blended with spices such as garam masala, chili powder and cumin. These kebabs are found and served in many places in India, but the Lucknow style is unique for its slow cooking and balance of spices. They are served with thick onion gravy, which adds richer taste.
From Royal Kitchens to Street Stalls
The history of Lucknow Kebabs cannot be studied or understood in isolation from the cultural economy of Awadh. As historian Rosie Llwellyn Jones argues in her work ‘A Fatal Friendship: The Nawabs, the British and the City of Lucknow’ (1985), the Nawabi court promoted and cultivated refinements in food as part of their cultural and political heritage. The kebabs became the markers of Awadhi identity in British times, as Awadh wanted to look distinct from the Mughals as a separate political and cultural state.
The Rakabdars were not only given patronage but also the freedom to experiment and innovate in cuisines. The state held fairs and food festivals, where unique cuisine dishes were awarded money and added to the royal kitchen. These dishes reflected the fusion of local ingredients and transregional techniques, which defined the city’s Ganga Jamuni Tehzeeb, meaning a syncretic Hindu-Muslim culture.
However, things changed after the British annexation of Awadh in 1856, when the Nawabi was abolished and the state was ruled by the British Government of India. The Rakabdars were now left jobless, and they turned towards public holdings such as restaurants, stalls, etc in the bazaars.
Among them is the renowned Tunday Kababi, which was founded by Haji Murad Ali in 1905 at Gol Darwaza, Chowk. Later, this eatery became the city’s iconic restaurant. The family preserved the secret recipe called ‘potli masala’, which is estimated to have over 160 herbs and spices.
Now, over 1000 restaurants serve kebabs in Lucknow, some have copied or others have innovated new recipes, but the style of these new restaurants cannot match the old traditional dish created by the Ali family.
Conclusion
Hence, in contemporary times, the kebabs have transformed their Nawabi origins into a common people’s favourite dish. Food Historian, Salma Husain, observes that Awadhi cuisine retains its prestige because it has continuously adapted itself to the forces of time, by entering as street food, restaurants served delicacies and even in the global market due to Indian diasporic influence. The kebabs have travelled a long distance from Persia to the Mughals, to the Nawabs and then to the common masses, binding together their past and present. From silver platters to the paper pattals, they have symbolized its identity without losing its authenticity.
So, whenever in the city of Nawabs, don’t forget to taste its kebabs.
References
Chowk Lucknow. “Chowk Lucknow.” Accessed August 16, 2025. https://lucknowtourism.co.in/chowk-lucknow.
Pushkarna, Kritika. “From Kebabs to Sweets: Explore Lucknow’s Irresistible Street Food Scene.” Petuz. Last modified May 4, 2018. https://petuz.india.com/dishes/food-recipe/from-kebabs-to-sweets-explore-lucknows-irresistible-street-food-scene-7675559/.
“The Galouti Kebab Story: Lucknow’s Most Famous Starter.” The Centrum. Last modified September 3, 2024. https://thecentrum.in/the-galouti-kebab-story-lucknows-most-famous-starter/.
Davidson, Alan, ed. The Oxford Companion to Food. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014.
Husain, Salma. Flavours of Avadh: Journey from the Royal Palace to the Heart of the Streets. New Delhi: Roli Books, 2013.
Husain, Salma. The Emperor’s Table: The Art of Mughal Cuisine. New Delhi: Lustre/Roli Books, 2008.
Llewellyn-Jones, Rosie. A Fatal Friendship: The Nawabs, the British and the City of Lucknow. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985.