The Lal Qila, or the Red Fort of Delhi, is a historical fort built by the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in the mid-17th century. The Red Fort was built as the palace fort for Shah Jahan’s new capital, Shahjahanabad, and served as the residence of Mughal Emperors for nearly 200 years. It is regarded as the paragon of Mughal creativity and architectural expertise. The Red Fort is an intricate synthesis of Persian, Timurid and Hindu influences. The impact of its innovative design and architectural style, including the elaborate garden planning, is noticeable in subsequent buildings and gardens across Rajasthan, Delhi, Agra, and other regions. The fort is a mighty defensive fort with ramparts of red sandstone. Today, it serves as a major tourist attraction and is renowned as the site where the Indian Prime Minister hoists the national flag on the Independence Day.
The construction of the Red Fort commenced on April 29, 1639, and its foundations were laid on May 12, 1639. It was completed on April 18, 1648. Ustād Ahmad and Ustād Hamid are credited as the architects of the fort. The total expenditure is estimated to amount to around 60 lakhs rupees (with imperial mansions alone costing around 28 lakhs).
Architectural Elements and Overall Layout
During Shah Jahan’s reign, the Mughal architecture saw a period of heightened refinement. The Red Fort itself is laid out in the form of an irregular octagon (Musamman-i Baghdādi). Its sweeping dimensions span approximately 812.8 meters in length and 487.68 meters in breadth. The exterior walls of the fort are made of red sandstones which were largely sourced from the quarries of Fatehpur Sikri, meanwhile a sizeable portion of the palace buildings utilise white marble. Many of the palace buildings within the fort, such as the Shah Mahal and Imtiyaz Mahal (now known as Rang Mahal), were constructed of white marble. A specific stone called sang-i nihāli (or sang-i bahtoli), mined in the Suba Gujarat, and its plaster were used to achieve pristine whiteness on surfaces, making them reflect like mirrors. This was used especially on dados, making them “reflectors of countenance (chehra numa)”. This technique became a preferred medium for Imperial buildings
An interesting anecdote about the fort is that it’s the exterior might have been white and red originally. The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) discovered traces of Mughal lime plaster (a mixture of lime, gum, bael fruit, and marble dust) on various parts, affirming this assertion. It is believed that the original white plaster either faded or was painted over by the British.
The fort is intentionally positioned so that most of the palatial complexes face towards the east, overlooking the Yamuna River with the ramparts rising 12 cubits from the waterfront to the plinth of the structures. The land that was non-contiguous to the river was protected by a ditch, filled with water from Nahr-i Bihisht and Yamuna. The fort is fortified by 21 bastions, seven of which are circular and fourteen octagonal, and features six gateways. The Delhi Gate was constructed in 1638 and links the New Delhi city with the old walled city of Delhi. Two of the other grand gatehouses face towards Akbarābād (Agra) and Lahore. The western street from the main market square leads to the Lahori Darwaza. The Lahori Gate is the main entrance, while Delhi Gate is located on the fort’s southern wall. Both are constructed with red sandstone and feature similar architectural details
A distinguishing feature of the private apartments is the Nahr-i-Behisht (Stream of Paradise), which was a continuous water channel
that weaved through the imperial buildings from north to south, connecting the private pavilions and contributing to the aesthetic and cooling system. This ornamental marble canal is a hallmark of the palace’s planning. The name is a reference to the Quranic description of streams flowing in the paradise. The Nahr-i Bihisht was supplied by a canal, originally dug by Sultan Firuz Khalji, which was repaired and extended to the fort by Shah Jahan
Another frequently observed architectural feature is the eight-sided pillars (hasht pahl) with distinct cappings (kulāh) and tapering supporting columns. The fort also presentd multi-foliated arches and engrailed arches. For instance, the Jama Masjid (though external to the fort) features a large central half-dome arch flanked by five smaller engrailed arches.
Artistic Enhancements and Decoration Techniques
The Red Fort is replete with exquisite artistry and decorative techniques. An detailed inlay technique called Parchīnkari (Pietra Dura) is used extensively. This involved the precious and semi-precious stones like agate, carnelian, and pearls being set into the marble surfaces. It often depicts dense floral designs, making surfaces appear like flourishing garden paths. The technique evolved from earlier examples, such as the tomb of I’timad ad-Daula, where Persian motifs like cypresses, vines, and flowers were seen in true pietra dura.
Āīnakārī (or Mirror Work) creates dazzling reflective surfaces and is markedly present on walls and upper sections of buildings. The Āīnakārī work is clearly visible in the river-facing surfaces of the Hammam, which were adorned with exquisite mirror work. Another ornamental feature of colourful incised decorations called Naqqāshi is prominent, particularly on structures like the Shah Burj. Expert painters depicted a variety of designs, including celestial elements like “pearl-like sun and moon,” heavenly flowers, vibrant figures, and intricate patterns. The ceilings of halls were adorned with complicate flower designs. The substantial use of precious metals is a recurring motif. Pavilions like the Shah Burj were overlaid with gold, and fountains were embellished with gold and silver plating. Golden finials (kalashas) crowned the structures, and golden inscriptions brightened surfaces.
The exquisitely carved railings, dados, and exterior walls of white marble, with motifs such as creepers with leaves and flowers on column shafts, muqarnas patterns, and arabesques can be frequently seen throughout the building complexes. The cypress entwined with flowering trees motif is also important. There is a focus on floral and geometric motifs in the Red Fort.
Notable Structures
Within the Red Fort, specific buildings highlight the aforementioned architectural and artistic traits. To begin with, the Shah Mahal (Daulatkhāna-i Khās) was made entirely of white marble. Its dados feature parchin work of agate, pearls, and other semi-precious stones. The Imtiyaz Mahal has multi-foliated arches and walls plastered with sang-i bahtoli and adorned with mirror work (āīna bandi). The Shah Burj is graceful structure of white marble which is adorned with colourful incised parchīn work and pure white surfaces from sang-i nihāli. It boasts three storeys, including an Octagonal House (Musamman khāna) with a water tank and waterfalls with golden vases. Its pavilion on the third storey rests on eight-sided pillars with golden kalashas.
Hammam (the bath), which is adjoining the Shah Mahal, has floors, platforms, and water tanks made of white marble with precious stone parchīn designs. The cold bath features a square tank with golden fountains, and its river-facing surface boasted exquisite mirror work.
The Diwan-i Khass (Hall of Private Audience) housed Shah Jahan’s royal seat, which is an elaborate structure of solid gold, studded with precious stones such as rubies, emeralds, pearls, and diamonds (notably the Kohinoor diamond). On the other hand, Diwan-i Khass-u-Amm (Hall of Public Audience) was primarily built of white marble (or red stone rendered white with marble plaster)It was crowned with golden inscriptions and domes and set on a large podium with red stone railings. The fort incorporated both a covered bazar with a wide octagonal chahārsuq, and an uncovered market, the former connecting the fort’s gate to the public audience hall.
Construction and Later History
Despite its initial splendour, the Red Fort’s original vision suffered significant transformations. Much of the fort endured large-scale vandalism during the colonial period, particularly after the Rebellion of 1857, when many parts were demolished and replaced with utilitarian military constructions. Adding to this, the Yamuna River has now been transformation into a major road and the Salimgarh Fort adjacent to the Red Fort has now been divided by a railway. This has impacted the complex’s integrity and relationship to its original setting.
Nevertheless, the Red Fort Complex remains a powerful symbol of power and has served as the backdrop for pivotal events in Indian history. It stands as a profound architectural legacy, reflecting the pinnacle of Mughal artistic and engineering ambition.
REFERENCES:
- Koch, Ebba. The Lost Colonnade of Shah Jahan’s Bath in the Red Fort of Agra. The Burlington Magazine, Vol. 124, No. 951 (Jun., 1982), pp. 331-339
- Burton-Page, John. “MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE.” Indian Islamic Architecture: Forms and Typologies, Sites and Monuments, edited by George Michell, vol. 20, Brill, 2008, pp. 27–33
- Rezavi, Syed Ali Nadeem. “‘THE MIGHTY DEFENSIVE FORT’: RED FORT AT DELHI UNDER SHAHJAHAN – ITS PLAN AND STRUCTURES AS DESCRIBED BY MUHAMMAD WARIS.” Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, vol. 71, 2010, pp. 1108–21.
- Sengupta, Ranjana. “Enshrining an Imperial Tradition.” India International Centre Quarterly, vol. 33, no. 2, 2006, pp. 13–26.
- Lal, Krishan. “LIFE IN THE RED FORT 1851-1853.” Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, vol. 21, 1958, pp. 480–87.
- KOCH, EBBA. “THE WOODEN AUDIENCE HALLS OF SHAH JAHAN: SOURCES AND RECONSTRUCTION.” Muqarnas, vol. 30, 2013, pp. 351–89.
- Koch, Ebba. “The Lost Colonnade of Shah Jahan’s Bath in the Red Fort of Agra.” The Burlington Magazine, vol. 124, no. 951, 1982, pp. 331–39.
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- https://web.archive.org/web/20120902215305/http://know.burrp.com/my-city/about-red-fort-delhi/11267
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