Whispers on Fabric: Unravelling the Legacy of Chikankari
Chikankari, or Chikan embroidery, is an elegant and delicate embroidery that is deeply ingrained in India’s cultural legacy. It is the art of tracing extremely fine, delicate floral tracery of white on white clothes (though nowadays available in different colours as well). The inception of this embroidery can be traced to the Mughal period, around 400 years ago, from a well-known ‘City of Nawabs’, Lucknow, the capital state of Uttar Pradesh. It is regarded as one of the best traditional embroidery and is a fundamental component of Lucknawi tradition. The name chikankari has its origin from the Persian word ‘chikan’ which signifies needle work. This art form has endured for over generations and is an important example of the vibrant fusion of Indian, Persian, and Mughal qualities.
Pradhan Rai Pannalal Mehta (1843–1919), c. 1901, Raja Ravi Varma. Image: Raja Ravi Varma Heritage Foundation. In his portrait by Raja Ravi Varma, he wears a Chikankari-embroidered angrakha
Minute white embroidery on white sheer muslin, a monochromatic sobriety of chikan, balanced with a rich texture from various stitches combined in different ways, all perfectly designed to complement and enhance the patterns of clothes, with ornamented details.
Historical Context
The word ‘chikan’ comes from Persian, although there it referred to embroidery with gold thread and quilting, or was used as a metaphor for the needle and didn’t specifically apply to any white on white, or floral, embroidery. Considering the fact that Persian had become the international lingua franca and the official court language in South Asia before British colonisation, it isn’t unusual to find Persian terms in common use; therefore, chikan seems to have been used as a generic term for white embroidery on white cloth.
The word chikankari first appears in the writings of Megasthenes, a Greek traveller from the first century BC, who detailed the use of flower-embroidered muslins by Indians. This art form attained prominence and was further developed & refined under the patronage of Mughal rulers, who appreciated the elaborate craftsmanship. The 19th century chikan embroidery, according to contemporary trade records and exhibitions’ catalogues, was produced in different places, from Calcutta and Dacca to Lucknow, Bhopal, Madras, Peshawar, and Quetta. Only a few antique pieces of the alleged origin have survived, mainly from Dacca and Lucknow.
A Chikankari motif with stitches Coutesy: Paula Manfredi
The passion for sheer cloths ornamented with patterns has a long history in India. We find mention of “flowered garments made of the finest muslin” at the court of Chandragupta Maurya in the 3rd century BC. In the 7th century A.D., King Harsha is said to have taken a liking to “white muslin garments embroidered with patterns but no colour, no ornamentation, nothing spectacular to embellish it.” Muslins from India were renowned internationally. They were a coveted luxury possession from as far back as the Roman Empire. Arab trade with Bengal flourished since early times, and the fine textiles produced in the Dacca region were among the products of choice.
During the Mughal empire, special workshops were set up in Dacca to produce the royal muslin, or mulmulkas, especially for the court. Nur Jahan, Jahangir’s beloved and much influential queen, of Persian origins herself, was a cultured aesthete and passionate about “rich textiles, tapestries, and fine embroidery.”. The queen is credited to have “greatly encouraged the manufactures of the country, and under her patronage the Dacca muslins acquired great celebrity.”. Nur Jahan’s well-known designs included dudami, or flowered muslins, which many consider to be the origin of chikankari.
With the advent of time, the craft has changed, adopting modern stitches and motifs but keeping its original grace and elegance. Chikankari has changed significantly throughout the years. It has prospered, endured the loss of royal court patronage, and seen a terrible downturn at the beginning of the 20th century. But nowadays, the chikan industry has undergone a revolution due to the usage of many textiles. By embracing contemporary uses on a variety of produced goods, from daily wear to celebration wear, accessories to home furnishings, it has broadened its horizons. Nowadays, the market for distinctive chikan goods is not limited to apparel; it also encompasses a wide range of other products such as handbags, blankets, pillows, and many more.
Origin of Chikan in Lucknow
The decline of the Mughal Empire eventually gave way to several regional courts, which began to assert their own autonomous rule. One such person was Saadat Khan Burhan-ul Mulk, the appointed governor of the vast and rich province of Awadh in 1722, who laid the foundation of a dynasty of Nawabs who ruled until 1856. Under their patronage, Lucknow evolved a distinctive lifestyle that came to define class, taste, manners, and culture. Chikan embroidery, although apparently developed only towards the end of the Nawabi era, is often taken as the epitome of Lucknow’s refined taste and culture. Yet how and when chikan embroidery originated in Lucknow remains quite mysterious.
A traditional jama embellished with Chikankari. Courtesy: Paula Manfredi.
The origin of chikankari in Lucknow is more or less based on conjecture. There are different narratives, some more romanticised and popular in Lucknow, favouring Persian and noble origins, in any case, a royal patronage, while others point towards a Bengali origin. These different narratives, as distant as they might appear, have converging features and are not mutually exclusive. Scholars suggest chikan embroidery in Lucknow came from the muslin, jamdani, and chikan craftsmanship developed in Bengal during centuries of royal patronage and of international trade relationships, having perfected these skills and absorbed them into a characteristic idiom of exotic styles and taste. In the latter part of the 19th century, chikan embroidered items of various genres and qualities were also made for export to Western markets.
Motifs
Chikan embroidery’s main characteristics have remained the same through the years. It incorporates sophisticated historical motifs that represent social, cultural, and creative influences over the course of its development. The motifs featured are mostly floral, with scrolls, trailing stems, and creepers filling compositions, with the paan leaf and the keiri or paisley motifs being among the favourite themes. The flowers, however, are rarely depicted in naturalistic styles, as they are generally outlined with a central portion filled with jali or open work stitchery of various kinds. We can also find an assorted range of geometric patterns like triangles, hexagons, and figurative elements like animals, such as peacocks, that symbolise strength and grace. This embroidery is not only an art form but a technique to express stories through stitches because each motif used has cultural meaning and symbolism.
Gadha Parsi in Chikankari. Courtesy: www.365days.com
The embroidery also features approximately 36 stitches, which are permutations of the basic 7 stitches. There are 3 main types of chikankari stitches, based on their appearance: flat, raised, and embossed. Various stitches, such as Tepchi (running stitch), Bakhiya (back stitch), keel, kangan, Murri (knot), Phanda, Dhania patti, Hool, Zanjeera (chain stitch), Jalli work, and many more, are used to create pieces with their own unique appeal.
Evolution and Adaptation
Over the years, chikankari art has evolved and modified to compete with the trends of modern times. The integration of chikankari with various other traditional embroidery methods like Gadha Parsi, Mirror, Pearl, Gotta patti, Mukaish work, and Cut Dana work has resulted in exclusive items that appeal to a wide range of interests and preferences of customers. The process of amalgamation with newer techniques gives the intricate designs a modern twist, adding brilliant essence and upright appeal that makes outfits appropriate for a variety of events varying from celebrations to modern bridal wear. As a result of innovations and fusion of different motifs, designs, and techniques, it provides endless possibilities.
Other than techniques, chikankari has also evolved over time to adapt in terms of designs and patterns in order to accommodate consumer preferences and market demands while still retaining the art’s traditional roots. The original white-on-white and pastel colour scheme of chikankari has been transcended in today’s contemporary art. Now chikankari has evolved beyond cotton and has adopted the modern taste of vibrant colour combinations, and experiments with textile materials such as georgettes, chiffons, silks, modal, viscose, organza, and chanderi are done. Innovation has been incorporated in motifs and designs that are influenced by nature, geometrical themes, and abstract patterns that are liked by wider consumers. But traditional motifs like paisley and floral vines have their own charm and are still very popular.
Production
In the past, textiles and artistic crafts of exclusive quality were generally produced in palace workshops or karkhanas, where the organisation of work facilitated the integration of different production steps. Descendants of lineages of master craftsmen reveal how in the early 20th century there were still a few karkhanas in Lucknow producing very fine chikankari for elites, but by the ‘30s, these also had completely disappeared. The workshop system consisted of male artisans and embroiderers, although contemporary texts do mention ladies doing also fine work at their homes.
(detail) Head-Veil, c. 1800, Lucknow, CC0. Courtesy: The Heritage Lab
The karkhana system was progressively replaced over the course of the 19th century and completely in the 20th century with a fragmented organisation of commercial productions, which is still common today. Each task of the production chain is completed in a different place by different specialized artisans, including, in the past, the weavers of fine muslins, master tailors and tailors, designers of embroidery, block makers and printers, artisans, mainly ladies, working at home and doing different kinds of embroidery work, washermen and their wives ironing the finished pieces.
Some of the sophisticate craftsmanship of the past is not practised any longer. However, after a long period of decline, towards the end of the 20th century chikankari through the combined passion of master craftswomen, craftsmen and designers, is again rediscovering high levels of artistry. Today chikankari has evolved into a big industry that employs almost 90% women. Women artisans frequently focus on complex hand embroidery and creating designs which are a fundamental part of chikankari. These artisans display their dexterity and inventiveness as they painstakingly create stunning patterns.
Mukaish work in Chikankari. Courtesy: Neelam Yadav and Shabnam Chhabra
Obstacles and Challenges
Despite its rich history and beauty, chikankari needlework and production still faces a myriad of obstancles. since it is quite labour extensive, hand stitching makes large scale production quite difficult. The advent of machine made goods has affected the chikankari sector. The authenticity and originality of handcrafted chikankari are being threatened to machine produced products. The prevalence of such goods threaten the livelihood of trained and seasoned artisans. Apart from these, quality control is another issue and is dependent on the accuracy of the artisans. The availability of raw sustainable materials becomes difficult. In such cases, it becomes challenging to balance the accessibility and profitability. Designers often steal credit from the artisans. Many factors like unstable market needs, weak negotiating power, equipment requirements, working environment, health issues etc are the hardships faced by these artisans.
Several socio-economic factors pose additional challenges for women artisans such as lack of education, lack of access to finances etc. They face several traditional social norms that inhibit their economic independence and mobility. Although this chikankari industry is dominated by women, gender disparity is still prevelant. Women artisans contribute most of the work to the embroidery whereas middleman and traders typically dominate the industry. As a result, women artisans lack agency and there are imbalances in power.
