Introduction
The Bhakti movement of medieval times saw the spread of Sankardeva’s Vaishnavite movement in Assam that helped in the creation of a lively art culture. In the 16th century, Assam witnessed the birth of manuscript miniature paintings, greatly influenced by the Vaishnavite religious culture of Sankardeva (1449-1569).
An important bhakti reformer, Srimant Sankardeva’s neo-Vaishnavism introduced new forms of drama, literature, music, dance, musical instruments, paintings, etc., forming a distinct culture in the socio-religious sphere in Assam. Its essence lay in worship of sacred scriptures—rejecting idolatry and stressing on spiritual and moral development. Sankardeva preached the ‘eka sarana nam dharma’ that considered Vishnu as the supreme deity. Sankardeva himself wrote all his compositions in the manuscripts.
Manuscript miniature paintings developed in this backdrop. It flourished in the institutions called the ‘satra’ that became important centers or monasteries for the development of intellectual and cultural activities of the people. These manuscripts were not just depictions of pictures on a piece of paper; they were stories containing descriptive texts and elaborate paintings. They flourished throughout the 16th century until the last part of the 19th century in Assam.
From leaves to ink—how these manuscript paintings were made
The art of manuscript painting that began with the evolution of worshipping the religious scriptures has various techniques and processes attached to it. These paintings were not done on simple paper or solid surfaces but on leaves made of two materials—
Sanchipat: made from the bark of the ‘Sanchi’ tree, also known as aloes wood or Aquilaria agallocha. In order for the raw bark slices to absorb and hold the ink, they had to be cured, seasoned, and polished prior to the surface becoming thicker. The bark is trimmed to a manageable length of 9 to 27 inches and a width of 3 to 18 inches. Sanchipat is the local writing material that is unique to the area. The manuscripts became known as “sanchi puthi” (sanchi book) because of their extensive use.
Tulapat: These were handmade papers made by pressing cotton. It is found in the ‘katha guru charita’ (biography of Vaishnavite saints in Assam) that Sankardeva used Tulapat while painting his earliest play, ‘chinha yatra’.
To scribe in these manuscripts, ink was derived from natural materials. Black ink was primarily used because of its longevity and legibility. Ink was therefore mainly prepared from ingredients like Silikha (Terminalia citrina), bull’s urine, amla extracts (Phyllanthus emblica), etc. The extract collected from earthworms and the blood of Asian swamp eels may also add to enhance the brightness of ink.
The additional components needed to prepare a manuscript, including well-crafted pens, are composed of bamboo, quill, and Kaap Dhekia, a type of fern. Squirrel hair is used to make handmade brushes. The measuring tools, known as kathi, are composed of bamboo and are used to measure text alignment. Additionally, the colors mostly used in the miniature paintings were indigo, yellow ochre, hengul (vermillion), haital (yellow arsenic), white, green and black. These colors were also naturally derived, which added vibrancy to the manuscripts.
Artists of the manuscripts
The artists who created manuscript miniature paintings were known as Khanikars, and they were encouraged and patronized by the satras. A khanikar was a multifaceted individual who participated in a variety of occupations, such as conducting religious rituals in the satras, a carpenter carving traditional objects, a sculptor and even an engraver. They occasionally painted the faces of performers in Assamese traditional plays called bhaonas as makeup artists. They were able to paint vivid images in the folios because they were experienced with this color-based art technique. In addition to the Khanikars, there were also the Patuas and Likhaks, whose secondary sources of income were manuscript illustration and transcription.
Schools of Manuscript painting
According to various sources, manuscript miniature paintings can be grouped under four distinct schools:
- Sattriya-style schools—these were the earliest form of manuscript paintings that were produced in the satras by the khanikars.
- Court style or royal style—a refined form of sattriya style paintings that developed in the royal courts of the Ahom dynasty and were patronized by the Ahom kings. Here, the visual depictions were influenced by Mughal pictorial art.
- Darrang style—developed in the Darrang region situated on the North Bank of the Brahmaputra, these paintings were popular because of the folk elements incorporated in them.
- Tai-Ahom style—these paintings were inspired by Upper Burmese manuscripts written in the Tai language (Ahom’s indigenous dialect). Their pictorial representations included a number of Buddhist themes, which had a significant impact on the Vaishnavite School of painting in Assam.
Motifs and Themes
The primary themes and motifs of manuscript painting, which arose alongside the Vaishnavite movement, are associated with Vishnu in all of his manifestations. The manuscripts contained illustrations accompanying descriptive texts that ranged from the mythological tales of the Bhagavat, Puranas, Kirtan Ghoxa (religious text composed by Sankardeva), Mahabharata, and Ramayana to the chronicles of kings and representations of religious accomplishments of the Vaishnavite saints.
Composed in the horizontal layout, most of these paintings depict the childhood and adolescence period of Lord Krishna’s life, like scenes of Krishna slaying demons, playing with the female attendants (gopis), vastraharan (stealing the clothes of the gopis), and lifting mount govardhan, etc.
Additionally, motifs feature representations of Sattriya dancers, a traditional dance style that has its roots in the Vaishnavite satras, in expressive mudra positions that capture the narrative spirit of the dance style. Furthermore, in addition to rich representations of environmental motifs like plants, flowers, rain, rivers, mountains, and birds, manuscript paintings frequently include architectural elements like arches utilized as decorative borders. The use of color and ornamental detailing varied across the regional schools, reflecting diverse aesthetic features.
Current status
Since the 18th century, manuscript paintings have been steadily declining as a result of the shortage of trained artisans and the loss of courtly patronage. Its demise was exacerbated by the introduction of print technology in Assam in the 19th century. In addition, the continuous challenges it faces include declining supply and demand, inadequate conservation techniques, and natural disasters like floods and hostile weather conditions in the region.
Despite these obstacles, modern historians, artists, academics, and heritage conservationists have worked to revive this vibrant art form. Furthermore, the state museums house the well-preserved surviving manuscripts from the 16th century. Because sanchipat and tulapat are not readily available, new self-taught artists are also emerging to copy these paintings and produce new ones using materials like cloth and canvas.
Conclusion
Manuscript paintings of Assam serve as windows illuminating a cultural memory of a bygone era. They have emerged from the satras, which are rich tapestries of the Assamese culture. It is crucial for cultural historians to move beyond the prevailing narratives of mainstream central Indian art forms and peek into the cultural artistry heritage of the northeast. By engaging with the stories, mythologies and folklore of the region, they can further help in elevating India’s diverse cultural legacy.
References
https://www.atributetosankaradeva.org/manuscript_painting.htm
https://www.sahapedia.org/manuscript-painting-of-assam-historical-and-contemporary-perspectives
https://chitrolekha.com/ns/v1n2/v1n203.pdf